1918 - the year of offensives

Some images of the new equipment for the projected 1919 campaign

French Char 2c or FCM

The French were to produce International tanks for their units. But, typically, they also developed breakthrough (or assault) tanks of their own. These were rather more ambitious than the Mk. VIII, and far more heavily armoured (frontal to 45mm). The furthest advanced was the Char 2C. It had a 75-mm field gun in the rotating, forward turret and a 7.5-mm machine gun in separate, rear-mounted turret. The latter was intended to enfilade trenches as the tank crossed. Additional machine guns fired from ball mounts on the flanks of the vehicle. Ten were eventually built between 1920 and 1925. All were destroyed on their railroad flatcars while being rushed to the front in 1940. The illustration shows how the vehicle might have appeared in action in 1919.

Medium Type D

The Medium D, was considerably different in design to its three predecessors. It weighed only 20 tons and, because of its powerful 240 hp engine and flexible tracks allowing a smooth ride, was capable of reaching 20 mph (32 kmh), lightening fast compared to any other tanks before it. Its great strength was its speed and reliability. The new track types would have greatly enhanced battlegield mobility and reliability


Medium Type C

The first British medium, the Whippet, had proved barely adequate. It was fragile, hard to drive, short-legged, and lacked the trench-crossing ability that the infiltration phase of the plan required. Mediums would have to cross the formidable anti-tank ditches of the Hindenburg Line before they could turn the German flanks and raid the headquarters areas at the rear. Accordingly, the new Medium B, Medium C, and Medium D tanks adopted the rhomboidal form of the British heavies. While they retained the all-machine gun armament and fixed turret of the Whippets, they were much larger, easier to handle, and better protected vehicles. They were all designed to withstand the standard German 13mm "K" AT round

Infantry Tank Mk VIII "International"

The the main breakthrough tank would be the Anglo-American Mark VIII "Liberty" or "International." This was an enlarged and improved version of the rhomboid-type heavy tank, with better track, greater trench-crossing ability, and a powerful Ricardo or Liberty V-12 engine in a sealed engine compartment. The armor was designed to withstand the German K-patrone and the bullet splash (molten lead) that forced its way through the joints and vision slits of the earlier vehicles. The Mark VIII went into production in the US, but did not see combat. They formed a major part of the US Army's nominal tank strength up until 1940, when they were quietly sent to Canada for use in training. Examples can still be seen at the Aberdeen and Bovington tank museums. They were considered reliable tanks for their time

Some developments in aircraft for the projected 1919 campaign

The high-performance AEG G.IV medium bomber was converted into an armored, antitank gunship, the G.IVk (kanone). Armor enclosed both engines and the entire forward half of the fuselage. Two of the new SEMAG/Becker automatic cannon were mounted, one in a fully enclosed turret under the nose and on an open, large-diameter gun ring on the rear cockpit. The Becker was the first 20-mm light-weight cannon. A number were produced prior to the end of the war, but their is no evidence that they were ever used.

The anticipated proliferation of armored Allied airplanes naturally provoked counter-measures. Germany developed its own armored trench fighters in 1918, and tasked them with attacking Allied trench fighters and contract patrol aircraft. The first attempt at an aircraft in this class was the AEG PE (Panzer Einsitzer) triplane, which was not accepted. But its successor, the AEG DJ.1, was ordered into production. The DJ.1 was a structurally advanced two-bay biplane powered by the new 195-hp Benz Bz III or Maybach Mb IVa V-8 engine. The airframe was fabricated from dural light alloy with fabric covered flying surfaces and a dural-sheet fuselage. To reduce vulnerability to ground fire, there were no bracing wires. The wings were braced to each other and to the fuselage by substantial, I-section struts. Armor protected the pilot, fuel tanks, and engine. Initially, the fighter was to carry two standard 7.92-mm machine guns and light bombs. But it was also designed to incorporate the formidable TuF (Tank und Flieger Gewehr), a heavy antitank machine gun chambered for the 13-mm Mauser cartridge described below. Three prototypes were under test when the war ended in the West. The Benz-engined aircraft attained a maximum speed of 112 mph. They weighed 2606 lbs empy and 3,031 lbs fully loaded. Span was 32 ft 9 in and length was 21 ft 11 in.

The Sopwith TF.2 Salamander was a British World War I ground attack aircraft which first flew in April 1918. The war ended before the type could enter squadron service, although two were in France in October 1918.

By 1917, the use of close support aircraft had become an essential part of an infantry attack. On the German side, specialist aircraft were designed specifically for the task, such as the Halberstadt CL.II and the armored Junkers J.I – the British however relied for this work on ordinary fighters such as the DH 5, and the Camel, and general purpose two seaters such as the F.K.8. Ground fire took a heavy toll of aircrew involved, and an equivalent to the armored German machines was sought. The first British aircraft to be built specifically for "ground strafing", as close support was known, was an armored version of the Camel, known by the company as the "TF.1" (for "trench fighter"). This did not go into production, but information gained in testing it was used for the Salamander design.

Design of the Salamander, conceived as an armored version of the Sopwith Snipe, began in January 1918. The forward portion of the fuselage was a 650 lb (295 kg) box of armor plate. The rear portion was a generally similar structure to the Snipe's, but flat sided, to match the forepart. The wings and tail unit were identical with the Snipe, and the same Bentley BR2 rotary engine was fitted. This was protected by a standard (unarmored) cowling – the foremost armor plate forming the firewall.

The prototype underwent its initial trials in April 1918, and was sent to France for evaluation on 9 May, but subsequently crashed on 19 May during test program while with No. 65 Squadron when the pilot had to avoid a tender crossing the aerodrome responding to another crash. . By this time four prototypes were flying, undergoing many of the same modifications to the tail and ailerons as the Snipe in order to correct the initially rather heavy and unresponsive controls.

Production was intended to be on a very large scale – The Air Navigation Co., Glendower Aircraft, and Palladium Motors all signed contracts to supply Salamanders, as well as the Sopwith company itself. By the end of the war, however, only 37 Salamanders were on RAF charge, and only two of these were in France. None had as yet been issued to an operational squadron.

With the Armistice, the immediate need for a specialist close support aircraft evaporated, and no squadron was ever fully equipped with the type, which had disappeared from RAF service altogether by the mid 1920s. The type was not developed, but was used in trials of various patterns of disruptive camouflage in the early post war years. One example went to America, and was apparently still in existence at McCook Field in 1926.

Fullers Plan 1919 built on experience gained from the first major tank actions—Cambrai, Amiens, Villers- Bretonneux. In each of these seminal battles, tanks had achieved major breakthroughs and thoroughly disorganized the German defenses. But, just when victory seemed in reach, the offensives had, in each case, faltered. Tanks broke down, got lost, or fell victim to well-sited field guns. The artillery that would normally have neutralized the enemy guns and the flow of orders, supplies, and spare parts that would sustain and guide a conventional advance had been rapidly left behind in the mud of the shattered German defence lines. Poor communications and the inability of artillery to keep up were, by 1918, the main limiting factor on the success of tank offensives.

Fuller addressed these problems by a twofold solution, he firstly used a german idea of making some of the artillery mobile (in fact this was already used from Hamel; on) he secondly suggested a greater reliance on aircraft than had hitherto been the norm. Bombers would isolate the battlefield by disorganizing enemy communications, attacking headquarters, and bombing road junctions. Fighters would serve in lieu of field artillery during the advance. They would use their machine guns and 20-lb Cooper bombs to pin down antitank artillery, thus securing the fast and, hopefully, reliable medium tanks against their most dangerous enemy. Fighters would also strafe rolling stock, road transport, and assembling reinforcements in the rear. Most importantly of all, "contact patrol" aircraft would take over for the supply train and the field telephone network that the fast moving assault forces had left behind. These airplanes would locate friendly forces and front lines, pick up messages, and drop orders and supplies to temporarily isolated units.


The contact patrol type was, in many ways, the most characteristic aircraft to emerge from the First World War, even though it appeared in only limited numbers and at the very end of the fighting. Radio telephony was still in its experimental stages in 1918, so troops communicated with aircraft using Very lights and pre-arranged patterns of cloth staked out on the ground. To locate small, camouflaged units of friendly troops on a rapidly changing, discontinuous front, contact patrol aircraft thus had to fly slowly, close to the ground, where enemy fire was heaviest. When ordinary two-seaters were used in this role, casualties were heavy and useful information scarce. The obvious answer was a well-armored two-seater— the contact patrol machine.

Germany's AEG, Albatros, and all-metal Junkers J-1 airplanes were the only contact patrol types to see active service. But the first Allied equivalent, the Sopwith Buffalo (illustrated) was just entering large-scale production when the Armistice was signed. The prototype, H.5892, was, in fact, sent to France for testing but did not fly operationally. The Buffalo closely resembled Sopwith's Snipe and Salamander fighters. It shared the same engine—the 230-hp Bentley BR.2—and had roughly similar two-bay wings and balanced tail surfaces. The Buffalo was, however, a two-seater. The pilot sat high up under a large cut-out in the upper wing, back-to-back with the observer/gunner. A single, fixed, .303-cal Vickers machine gun was mounted in the upper engine decking for the pilot, and the observer had a single Lewis gun on a Sopwith pillar mount (on the first prototype) or Scarf ring (all others). The entire forward fuselage, from the rear of the observer's cockpit to the engine was fabricated from flat sheets of armor plate. Weight was, of course, a problem. The Buffalo weighed 2,178 lbs empty (vs. 1329 lbs for the similarly powered Snipe). With a 360-lb crew, 375 lbs of fuel and lubricant, and a military load of 158 lbs, the airplane tipped the scales at 3071 lbs. While it had a respectable speed for a two-seater, 114 mph at 1000 ft, climb rate was poor and control response sluggish. It was seriously under-powered. Still, in the absence of higher-powered engines, the aircraft was felt to be adequate for service use, given the urgency of the need.

The Sopwith T.1 Cuckoo was a British biplane torpedo bomber used by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS), and its successor organization, the Royal Air Force (RAF). The T.1 was the first landplane specifically designed for carrier operations, but it was completed too late for service in the First World War. After the Armistice, the T.1 was named the Cuckoo.

Commodore Sueter proposed plans for an aerial torpedo attack on the German High Seas Fleet at its base in Germany. The carriers HMS Argus, HMS Furious, and HMS Campania, and the converted cruisers HMS Courageous and HMS Glorious, would have launched 100 Cuckoos from the North Sea. In September 1917, Admiral Sir David Beatty, commander of the Grand Fleet, proposed a similar plan involving 120 Cuckoos launched from eight converted merchant vessels. Training took place in the Firth of Forth, where Cuckoos launched practice torpedoes at targets towed by destroyers. Cuckoos of No. 185 Squadron embarked on HMS Argus in November 1918, but hostilities ended before the aircraft could conduct any combat operations.

That's the best source for Australian casualties. It's not authoritative for the casualties of other nations.

Authoritative source for French and German casualties.
Axis History Forum • View topic - An aside on Casualties

As for British and Commonwealth casualties, I have no idea whether Australian archives are more accurate then data provided by Winston Churhill. However he was appointed Secretary of State for War during January 1919 so Churchill certainly had access to official British casualty data.

As a matter of fact , they are one of the best sources for all casualties, because it includes a research library on the subject, that is used and contributed to by some of the best researchers in the field. It has sharing arrangements with other libraries and research institutes across the world. It is considered by many to be the best of its kind in the world. The databases are by no means limited to just Australian forces. It is used by military colleges and strategic studies institutions as well as general historical researchers across the world. The library is enormous, and includes electronic and print databases containing materials across a wide range of nationalities. You can spend years in the place and still not have scratched the surface of its information sources.

I think your preconceptions and prejudices are restraining you from undertaking some really fine research, to be honest.

Of course the casualties lists you posted are good, but you need to be mindful of their limits. For example, what is meant by "Franco-Belgian" front. After July, the Belgians had ben moved to the far north and took part in the capture of Belgian Ports, as part of a Belgian-British offensive. Some care needs to be taken in using these figures. For the germans, toal reported casualties apears to lag somewhat as casualties are still being reported after the end of hostiities. Not sure whats happening there

casualties are still being reported after the end of hostiities. Not sure whats happening there

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That's no mystery at all. The USA, Canada and Australia may have packed up and gone home after November 1918. For much of Europe plus Asia Minor WWI continued into the early 1920s.

was Germany involved in that fighting?

davebender said:

That's no mystery at all. The USA, Canada and Australia may have packed up and gone home after November 1918. For much of Europe plus Asia Minor WWI continued into the early 1920s.

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you forget about Russia with both US and Canada as players

davebender said:

That's no mystery at all. The USA, Canada and Australia may have packed up and gone home after November 1918. For much of Europe plus Asia Minor WWI continued into the early 1920s.

Click to expand...

In fact on closer examination of the page you posted, all the answers are there, just a little hidden.

One of the posters gives an accurate explanation as follows:

"German losses all fronts 1914-18,Land Forces.

These figures are from the more reliable Central Inquiry Office(Zentral Nachweiseamt) that continued postwar to also allocate the missing as dead as their findings continued.They worked separately from the Reichsarchiv by checking all hospital returns at both home and the front.The Reichsarchiv collected the casualty returns every ten days from units in the field,and did not investigate the fate of the missing.

German death toll of 1,834,524 as at 1923 excludes 170,000 in Footnote 4 still missing but presumed dead.These were later reclassified dead by 1930.Add these plus 50,000 deaths in the Naval Forces and a total of around 2.05 million dead seem correct".

Further, in the notes section on German losses, there are 170000 unacounted deaths as at December 1918. I am willing to bet that the lions share of these unnaccounted losses in fact occurred at the end of the war. What is not clarified in the notes are the numbers of unnaccounted wounded and and POW/missing. So, potentially German losses for July to November could be substantially higher than those previously listed.

The notes appended to WSCs tables should be taken into account. For the germans, it notes that the October losses are incomplete, and that the losses for november are not included in the listed figures at all. This might explain why losses for the western front are different in some sources. German repports for losses are made at best an estimate by a further note in the tables....the losses for the first part of the war in 1914-15, are based on estimates only....

Like i said, you would do well to explore the AWM archives which go into some detail on these anomalies, rather than rely on Reichsarhiv reports which are known to be incomplete and quite innaccurate in some respects

Of course. Germany had no choice in the matter as nations such as Poland and the Soviet Union sought to expand territory by force of arms. Germany also had naval personnel killed at Scapa Flow during 1919. German POWs died in captivity after 1918 causing their status to be changed from missing to killed.

davebender said:

Of course. Germany had no choice in the matter as nations such as Poland and the Soviet Union sought to expand territory by force of arms. Germany also had naval personnel killed at Scapa Flow during 1919. German POWs died in captivity after 1918 causing their status to be changed from missing to killed.

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I think you should read the material you posted, because the casualties listed there are the result of persons missing in action prior to 1918, but not included in the casualty lists at the time. Whole months worth of casualties are not included in those lists (and additional to the 170000 that are included as unaccounted losses that were gradually added up until 1930). There is an unnaccounted 170000+ men are not the result of post November fighting, they are the result of sloppy German reporting on casualties.

If the germans were involved in any fighting after 1918, the casualties they suffered are not reflected by those delayed casualty numbers.

You are also so quick to dismiss the Australian, the Canadians the Americans as being able to go home early, ie in november 1918....quite apart from being designed specifically to be insulting in the extreme, it also happens to reveal that you have not even the slightest clue, nor interest in knowing what actually happened after November 1918 to the allies.

For your information, not that you will believe it because it does not fit in with your jaundiced view of the world, most of the Australian mounted Division, the Australian formation in the middle East, did not stand down until the end of 1919. in that time from the end of the war until departure at the end of 1919, it was busy undertaking policing duties in the newly acquired territories of the Middle east....jordan and israel principally,alongside numerous British units

The campaign in Palestine 1915-16 - Summary

1915 Jan. 14 - Turkish army of 25,000 led by Djemal Pasha, with the help of German adviser Kress von Kressenstein, left Beersheba in Palestine to attack the Suez Canal, crossed 150 miles of Sinai desert without the loss of a single man. The attack on Feb. 3 was repelled by Indian troops and a small British Regular force, with guns from British ships in the Canal. The Turks lost 2000, but Turkey occupied the Sinai in Feb. and caused the British to build up a major force in Egypt to defend the canal.

Feb. 13 - In the Sinai, a Gurkha force of 500 surprised the Turks at Tor east of Suez, due to Arab spy network of Lt. Col. Parker.

1915 Oct. - After the Ottoman Turks entered the war, Gen. John Maxwell assumed military control of Egypt, at first told Egyptians that England "accepted the sole burden of the war" and would not ask Egyptians, or fellahin, for any participation or aid. But this changed in 1915. Egyptians were hired to dig trenches for defense of canal, build railways, water pipes, load supplies, join British as camel drivers. Thus were organized the Egyptian Labour Corps (ELC) and the Camel Transport Corps (CTC). One company in the CTC had 2020 camels and 1168 Egyptians including native overseers with buffalo-hide whips that supervised drivers. There was high turnover of drivers, 170,000 serving during the war. In Nov. 1915, Maxwell requested reinforcements to his dwindling army of 60,000. by Dec., he had 300,000 Territorials and Dominion troops. The new force was sent to Egypt by General Staff Chief Gen. William "Wully" Robertson, who had risen from a private, who also sent Gen. Archibald Murray to command the defense of the Suez Canal, while Maxwell commanded western Egypt. Murray proposed in 1915 to advance on El Arish, using camels. The EEF (Egyptian Expeditionary Force) purchased tens of thousands of camels from the Delta to assemble the largest camel force in history. Each camel could carry 2 water tanks of 12 gals each. The Imperial Camel Corps was officially organized at Kantara on Jan. 24, 1916. The British forces included the Army Cyclist Corps, and armored cars, and a growing air force.

1915 Nov. 20 - the Senussi revolt of puritanical Muslim Arabs in western Egypt began, encouraged by German and Turkish agents. The British evacuated the westernmost outpost at Sollum.

1916 Feb. 26 - Battle of Agagiya in the western desert of Egypt, the Western Frontier Force of Territorials and Yeomanry with armored cars defeated the Senussi, included a cavalry charge against the Arabs by the Dorset Yeomanry that was called "the outstanding event of the campaign."

1916 Mar. - British advance into Sinai began at ancient caravan station of Kantara on the Suez Canal and the railroad from Cairo. The British would extend the Kantara Military Railroad along this caravan route to El Arish and Gaza and Jaffa. By 1917 Kantara became one of the largest British camps in the war

1916 Apr. - Turks under von Kressenstein led 3500 against British outpost at Qatiya and defeated the Yeomen of the 5th Mounted Brigade, who were replaced by the Anzac Mounted Division, and the railroad construction reached Romani. 25 miles from Kantara.

1916 July 19 - Brit airplane reported advance from Beersheba of 16,000 Turks, incl the crack Anatolian division, and incl heavy artillery for which special tracks were laid in the sand of timber and brush.

1916 Aug. 4 - Battle of Romani - Kress attacked sand dunes of Mount Meredith near Romani where Murray had intentially weakened his right flank to pull in the Turks, then surround them with cavary (like the battle of Cannae). Murray brought up 50,000 troops to the battle front, and defeated the Turks who lost 6000, the British lost 1130, but Kress was able to withdraw his army intact to El Arish

British built railroad 15 mi per month, but delays in getting 15-inch water pipe, finally arrived trom United States in Oct. Also laid chicken wire road parallel to railroad

1916 Dec. 7 - Murray organized his Eastern Force to advance with the railroad, and appointed Gen. Philip Chetwode to lead a mobil vanguard force called the "Desert Column" and attack El Arish. The unit had 18 camel companies, Anzac Mounted Division, and the 42nd and 52nd Territorial divisions.

1916 Dec. 22 - Battle of Magdhaba - The Desert Column occupied El Arish and on Dec. 23, then advanced on Magdhaba, 25 mi southeast of El Arish, won victory, took 1282 pows

1916 Dec. - The new British government of David Lloyd George that came to power in Dec. and gave new importance to defeating the Turks and occupying Jerusalem, rather than the earlier passive policy of just defending Egypt.

1917 Mar. - Murray's Eastern Force advanced toward Gaza with 40,000. Reporter Charles A. Court Repington of the London Times reported the upcoming battles.

Mar. 26 - First Battle of Gaza, Murray was defeated by Turks, lost 4000 and Turks lost 2500. British had only 170 artillery, only 25 airplanes, and were 25 miles from the railhead at Rafah, badly in need of water.

War In Palestine 1917 - Summary

1917 Jan. 9 - Battle of Magruntein (or Battle of Rafah) - Desert Column from El Arish took 1635 pows at El Magruntein southwest of Rafah

1917 Mar. - Murray's Eastern Force advanced toward Gaza with 40,000. Reporter Charles A. Court Repington of the London Times reported the upcoming battles.

Mar. 26 - First Battle of Gaza, Murray was defeated by Turks, lost 4000 and Turks lost 2500. British had only 170 artillery, only 25 airplanes, and were 25 miles from the railhead at Rafah, badly in need of water.

Apr. 1 - Murray received 8 tanks, the only theater outside France to get tanks

Apr. 19 - Second Battle of Gaza was a classic infantry attack on a broad front against entrenched machine guns, tanks failed in fine sand and heat, poison gas from 3000 gas shells evaporated in hot winds, lack of artillery. British were defeated, lost 6444. Dobell was blamed and was replaced by Chetwode as commander of the Eastern Force.

Apr. 23 - The new Imperial War Cabinet of the George government decided to remove Murray from command. British policy was at a crisis point. Unrestricted submarine warfare since Feb. raised ships sunk from 3 per day to 13 per day; Nivelle's offensive in France had failed and the French army mutinied; in Russia, Nicholas II had been ousted in March, and Russia no longer posed a threat to Turkey

June 27 - Gen Allenby arrived in Egypt to replace Murray. Unlike most generals, Allenby became well-known to his troops, moved his HQ from Cairo to Palestine. His mission was, in the words of Lloyd George, "Jerusalem before Christmas" and then take Aleppo before new German force of 6500, the "Asia Corps" under Falkenhayn, arrived to defeat the British in Mesopotamia. But Gaza had to be taken first, where the Turks were building trenches to create a defense line from Gaza to Beersheba 30 miles long.

Oct. 1 - Allenby reorganized his army of 92,000 into 3 groups: the Desert Column, the 20th Corps, and the 21st Corps. He increased his artillery to 400, received Bristol airplanes that gave him control of the air. He planned to surprise the Turks with a feint attack at Gaza, where the Turks expected the attack, and make his main thrust on his right toward Beersheba.

Oct. 27 - The six-day bombardment began with navy guns as well, the largest artillery barrage outside France.

Oct. 31 - The 4th Australian Light Horse led by Gen. W. Grant charged and took Beersheba and its valuable water wells, a charge that became as famous as the Charge of the Light Brigade in 1854. The Light Horse force of 800 lost only 31 killed and 36 wounded, most casualties from hand-to-hand combat in the trenches, not from the cavalry charge.

Nov. 1 - night attack on Gaza by 21st Corps took outer defenses, but stopped.

Nov. 3 - British planes spotted Turkish reinforcements toward the heights of Khuweilfe, and the 53rd and 55th divisions reached the position before the Turks, and some units were hit by their own British artillery.

Nov. 6 - Chetwode attacked Sheria and won the battle in one day, used Stokes mortars against trenches, and over the next days widened the gap in the Turkish defense lines.

Nov. 7 - Third Battle of Gaza won by British.

Nov. 14 - British took Junction Station, cut the railroad line, opened the way for an advance into the Judean Hills to Jerusalem.

Nov. 20 - The 75th Division, the last one formed during the war, of Gurkas and British from India, captured the Jerusalem-Jaffa road, then on Nov. 21 captured the vital hill of Nebi Samwil, the key to the city. The division adopted a key as its unit symbol.

Nov. 27 - Falkenhayn had taken command of Turks in Nov. and launched counterattack Nov. 27-Dec. 3, against Nebi Samwil, but the British held.

Dec. 8 - Allenby sent the 20th Corps for final assault on Jerusalem, and at 7 am Dec. 9 the Turkish army retreated out of the city, and 4 centuries of Turkish rule came to an end. Lloyd George spoke to Commons Dec. 10 to announce the victory, and Dec. 11 Allenby made a dramatic and well-photographed entry into the city, walking rather than riding thru Jaffa Gate.

Dec. 27 - Turks attacked on the road from Nablus in the north, the British counterattacked the turkish flank, fighting went on for 3 days, but the British held the city. By Dec. 30, the British controlled the entire road from Jerusalem to Jaffa, but Allenby had lost 30,000 of his 97,000 and suffered supply problems. Allenby faced a communication and supply crisis in Jerusalem, the heavy rains having washed out the bridges and railroad construction, only the camels could cross the desert, ans some trucks were able to bring supplies from the railhead to the camels. The stormy seas hindered ships trying to unload supplies.

War In Palestine 1918 - Summary

Mar. 6 - War Cabinet told Allenby to advance "to the maximum extent possible"; Allenby created another corps, the 23rd Corps commanded by Gen. Barrow and with Wavell as chief of staff. Also, Allenby sent Gen. Shea to lead a force into Jordan that would capture Amman, but "Shea's Force' was defeated and retreated to Jerusalem Apr. 2

1918 Mar. 21 - German offensive began in France, and due to the disaster in France, the offensive in the Midwest was stopped and Allenby had to send some of his divisions to France, eventually losing 60,000 troops

1918 Apr. 29 - Gen Chauvel led another raid into Jordan, but it failed.

1918 Sept. 19 - Battle of Meggido, Allenby defeated last Turkish army. Allenby would fake a flank attack into Jordan, but send his main body and cavalry across the coastal Plain of Sharon to take Meggido. He could control the skies with the seven squadrons in the Palestine Brigade of the RAF. He had 385 artillery but there would be no preliminary bombardment, only a surprise attack, The airplanes destroyed key communication posts and the German air base at Jenin, then attacked Turkish troops on the roads. On Sept. 21, the airplanes destroyed a convoy attempting to flee into Jordan, dropping 9 tons of bombs and 56,000 machine gun rounds. By Sept. 22, Allenby had destroyed the Turkish 7th and 8th armies, taken 25,000 pows and 260 guns.

1918 Sept. 25 - Feisal's Northern Arab Army entered the battle in Jordan, and destroyed the Turkish 4th Army as it fled northward from Deraa. Gen Ryrie of the 2nd Australian Light Horse allowed the fleeing Turks to keep their weapons to fight off the Arabs who would not let the Truks surrender, and arrived in Amman fully armed but ready to surrender to the British. Gen. Barrow of the 4th Cavalry Division told T. E. Lawrence to stop the Arabs from killing Turks, but Lawrence refused.

1918 Oct. 1 - Australians and Arabs took Damascus, and Oct. 5 took Rayak. Australians were the first to enter the city, and left it several hours later

1918 Oct. 8 - British took Beirut.

1918 Oct. 26 - Brit took Aleppo, the last city to fall in Allenby's campaign.

Prelude to Operation Geogette (2nd German Offensive) - The Portugeuse

An article i found regarding the Portugeuse who were an integral part of the BEF, and whose casualties were generally lumped in with those recorded as British.

The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance

"Portugal is England's oldest ally with The Treaty of Windsor dating back to 1386 (In the middle of the Hundred Years War).

Like England Portugal was a seafaring nation and began to acquire her own colonies around the world. This led of course into diplomatic conflict when in 1890 Britain ordered the Portuguese government to remove its troops from what would become Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).

King Carlos I gave in to the British demands and with that the authority of the Portuguese monarchy began to slip away. In 1908 the King was assassinated and on 5th October 1910 the country became a Republic with bitter views about the territorial desires of its old ally. Perhaps not without reason for in 1913 Britain and Germany signed a secret accord dividing up the Portuguese African colonies of Angola and Mozambique.

Defending her colonies

When war broke out the following year between Britain and Germany Portugal was persuaded to remain neutral. Opinions in Portugal were mixed in that there was an opinion that they should let the British and French get on with it whilst at the same time there was a nagging worry about the war being waged in Africa. How secure were the Portuguese colonies ?

Another important question for the young republic was how to put itself onto the international stage. Whilst the thoughts of going to war over something that did not really concern them was not popular with the government, they were astute enough to realise that some form of involvement would provide greater guaranties in the future.

On 24th February 1916 the Portuguese government seized all the German and Austro-Hungarian ships that had been laid up in the port of Lisbon since the outbreak of the war. It was explained to the concerned governments that they were needed to transport food for a the civil population and that they would eventually be returned, but the two powers didn't buy the explanation and on 9th March 1916 German declared war on Portugal.

The formation of an Expeditionary Force

The Portuguese set about creating an expeditionary force for the Western Front.

In effect this force consisted of two bodies:

1.An Independent Heavy Artillery Corps (CAPI)
Corpo de Artilharia Pesada Independente
2.A Portuguese Expeditionary Corps (CEP)

Corpo Expedicionário Português

The Expeditionary Corps started to arrive in Brest on 2nd February 1917 and over the next eight months nearly 60 000 men would arrive in France. They were transported by train to the front in Artois near the town of Air sur la Lys and placed under the control of the British First Army.

They located their Corps Headquarters in St Venant at the mansion of La Peylouse and would remain there until forced out by Operation Georgette in April 1918.

The CEP consisted of two Divisions and were given British equipment and training in trench warfare techniques. On 11th May 1917 they were sent up to the front line and the problems began almost immediately.

The Portuguese government was not whole heartedly behind the war and no account was made for the daily attrition of manpower. The idea that outside of the great battles the front was peaceful is a false one. Artillery bombardments were carried out routinely as well as trench raids by both sides. One of Field Marshal Haig's gripes in 1918 was the fact that the British government wasn't prepared to replace his daily losses let alone plan to defend against a major German offensive.

The winter of 1917 was harsh and the soldiers far from acclimatised to such hardships. The constant gnawing away at their numbers created gaps that needed to be filled by working the men for even longer hours at the front (Sometimes for months at a time - unthinkable within the British Divisions around them).

Sitting in a filthy mud filled trench for a cause which seemed to have little to do with their homeland resulted in a lot of disaffection amongst the often illiterate Portuguese soldiers who felt abandoned by their government and officers.

Leave was almost non-existent for the simple reason that it was hard enough to get the officers to return to duty. Surprisingly it would appear that the soldiers had better military bearing than their superiors for of the 519 that were given leave, all returned - which could not be said for nearly half of the officers (1090 out of 1912).

The British were swift to acknowledge that the morale of the CEP was being seriously weakened as established strengths fell by almost a quarter. On 4th April 1918 their Commander: General Fernando Tamagnini de Abreu e Silva alerted the British of mutinies within the ranks and the decision was swiftly taken to have the CEP removed from the front.

Orders were promulgated to relieve the Portuguese 1st Division on the 6th April and the 2nd on the 9th April. Unfortunately the Germans were on the point of interfering with the plans.

With about 20 000 Portuguese soldiers holding their sector and already in the mindset that they were going to the rear, the Crown Prince of Bavaria was amassing 100 000 trained troops supported by 1 700 pieces of artillery.

9 April 1918 - Operation Georgette

At 0415 hours Colonel Bruchmüller's artillery orchestration began its work as it had done a few weeks before against the British on the Somme. Pounding all centres of communication and identified HQ's emplacements as well as the front line and artillery positions. Whole sectors were drenched with gas and the Portuguese Artillery noted their infantrymen starting to retire through them long before the actual attack had begun.

In the north of their line the 4th (Minho) Brigade did their best to stem the tide in front of Laventie but by 1100 hours it had been taken along with almost all of the Portuguese 4th Brigade.

Elsewhere the line collapsed despite being bolstered by the British as fast as they could with the 1st King Edward's Horse and the 11th Cyclist Battalion."

A stand was made at Lacoutre by the Portuguese 13th and 15th Battalions aided by the arriving British but even here the position became untenable by 1145 hours.

The hole created in the line was plugged as best as possible by the British 50th (Northumbrian) and 51st (Highland) Divisions. For the CEP the battle was finished.

Their losses amounted to nearly 400 killed and 6 500 captured.

Their participation in the battle, though, earned Portugal the right to participate in the victory parade and a place at the peace conference in Paris.

The Million Man

The low morale of the Portuguese soldiers no doubt contributed to the day's events but faced by a similar bombardment and overpowering enemy the British Fifth Army had fared little better in March.

Not every Portuguese grabbed a bike and ran. Private Anibal Milhais of the 15th Bn was in charge of one of their Lewis gun's on the 9th April. Firing his gun Louisa for all he was worth, he managed to cover the retreat of Portuguese and Scots alike despite coming under heavy attack himself.

Only 1.55 metres tall the big wee man stayed at his post until he had run out of ammunition. His bravery under severe circumstances managed to convince the Germans that they were up against a fortified unit rather than just: one Portuguese peasant with a machine gun.

He managed to extract himself and wandered back towards the rear lines where he was received to great acclaim.

His commanding officer Major Ferreira do Amaral described his action as having been worth a million men and the nickname stuck.

Milhais, a simple farmer by profession survived the war and lived until 1970 having spent some time in Brazil. His home town in Murça District erected a statue in his honour and he became a symbol for the new Portugal.

The battle Of Lys

"On 7 April 1918 the German 6th Army launched the second part of Ludendorff's strategic plan. Originally named George it had been watered down enough for it to have been re-named Georgette.

The objective was Ieper.

In a swinging blow the 6th Army would break the Allied Line under Armentières whilst the 4th Army would attack Ieper in an encircling move from the north.

Sometimes known as the 4th Battle of Ypres, it is more correctly termed the Battle of the Lys.

The first blow fell at Neuve Chapelle on 9 April 1918 against the 2nd Portuguese Division.

The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps Alongside and in support, the British Divisions in the sector had all been involved in Operation Michael on the Somme and had been sent north to rest and take on new recruits. Thus many Battalions were tired, under strength and with a high percentage of untried raw recruits.

At 04:15 hours the German bombardment began. The fire plan was orchestrated by the same Colonel Bruchmüller who had helped make such terrifying punctures in the British lines on the Somme.

At 08:00 hours he added trench mortars to his ensemble and 45 minutes later, four German Divisions made up of well trained and rested assault troops threw themselves at the Portuguese lines."

The Portuguese had already started to fracture in the face of the bombardment and apart from a few isolated positions gave the Germans no opposition at all. Within the hour the front line was taken along with 6 000 prisoners.

Struggling to keep pace with the hole that had formed in their line the British were also by this stage on the retreat.

The following day with the advance of the German 6th Army continuing, the British were forced to give up Armentières and Bailleul would fall on the 15th despite a strong defence.

Realising that resistance was weakening Ludendorff decided that the time was ripe to increase the scope of Operation Georgette and to commit his reserves. The British looked as though they could be broken.

Backs to the wall

With the situation turning desperate, General Haig issued his Order of the Day to the British Army.

"There is no other course open to us but to fight it out ! Every position must be held to the last man: there must be no retirement. With our backs to the wall and believing in the justice of our cause, each one of us must fight on to the end."

Haig's requests to Foch for full scale assistance fell on deaf ears. The new Commander in Chief was by no means convinced that the attack in Flanders was the German's last effort and he was determined to be prepared with sufficient reserves for the next blow.

He did however make two Divisions available to General Plumer's 2nd Army and moved General Maistre's Army up into the Authie Valley around Doullens to rebuff any breakthrough should the British give way.

In fact although the British were forced to alter their line they were making the German advance pay dearly for every metre of territory gained. Haig remained concerned that all his reserves were being committed and again asked Foch to have the French take on part of his line. Foch remained firm to his convictions that this battle on the Lys was nothing more than a huge diversion in preparation for something more solid elsewhere.

The Australians at Merris

"The Australians of their 1st Division had begun to move south on 8 April in order to support the situation on the Somme, but with the opening of the Battle of the Lys found themselves in the thick of the fighting near Merris and Méteren.

The town of Hazebrouck behind them was an extremely important supply route in this region. If it fell the British lines of communication would be seriously disrupted.

On the morning of 14 April 1918 the Germans launched an attack against the Mont de Merris which was held and commanded by Lieutenant Christopher Champion of the 3rd Bn AIF.

The Germans advanced in waves so dense that the Australians said that they could hardly miss their targets.

A farm just in front of the Australians called Gutzer Farm was taken by the Germans and this allowed them to fire from the flanks against Champion's men.

At 10:30 hours having beaten off the German attack Champion decided to try and push them out of Gutzer Farm, ordering Lt Prescott forward with his platoon. Prescott managed to drive the Germans out of the farm but realised that he couldn't hold the position due to the machine gun fire from all sides.

Having lost a number of men including Corporal Ernie Corby by sniper fire he retired.

Throughout the afternoon the Germans tried to press Champion and his men but each time they let the enemy get close and then riddled their waves with bullets, driving them off each time. A lull developed until 19:00 hours when a final effort by the Germans was also beaten off.

Sadly after his determined stand throughout the day, Champion was hit in the head by a bullet and fell.

Neither Lt Champion or Cpl Corby were found on the battlefield for burial, until 85 years later in 2003 when a farmer found the remains of four Australian soldiers. Two were identified, and at last Christopher Champion and Ernie Corby were given proper burials in Outtersteene Cemetery not far from where they had fallen.

On 16 April Méteren and Wijtschate fell and the Germans came to the foot of Mont Kemmel."......

Read a book a year or so ago about the Meuse-Argonne offensive in 1918. The AEF took heavy casualties there but I disremember the numbers. For the whole war:
KIA-53402
WIA-204002
Other-63000
I believe most of those took place during the Meuse-Argonne

Meuse Argonne was one of the three offensives undertaken by order of the supreme commander , Marshal Foch, designed to clear the germans from french territory, and more importantly to break the heavily fortified Hindenburg line.

I intend to have a closer look at the other allied offensives in due cours, though i would prefer an American or french member of the forum to do the detailed postings for these events. If i have to do it, it will be based on learnt evidence rather than an intimate knowledge of the subject.

It needs to be remembered that Meuse Argonne was not just a purely American operation, it also involved significant numbers of french troops, with a corresponding significant french casualty list. Often american-centric histories claim all the casualties as US casualties.

The sources I have suggest 117000 US casualties (killed, wounded MIA) , 70000 french, and about 100000 German losses. Of the American casualties, 48909 were listed as dead. The 117000 total casualties represented 40% of the total casualties suffered by the AEF, however it needs to be noted that in addition to the battle casualties, the AEF suffered a further 53000 fatalities from Spanish Influenza during the latter stages of the war. These losses are not usually included as battle casualties by the Americans.

I am not all that familar with this particular battle, so have relied on third party sources to recount the events. anyone with better information please feel free to post, but please, do not try to argue that the germans actually won the battle as this is clearly an erroneous position to take.

The First Battle of Kemmel

"On 16 April 1918 Méteren and Wijtschate fell and the Germans came to the foot of Mont Kemmel.

At dawn on 17 April 1918 the Germans launched a thunderous assault from Houthulst Forest against the Belgian Front Line at Merkem and Kippe. Just in front of the village they succeeded in breaking through and for a tantalising moment for the German High Command it looked as though they were going to achieve what all sides had been attempting since those heady days of glory in 1914 - the ability to out flank and roll up the enemy's line.

The Belgians, however, were fighting for the last few kilometres of their country and were not going to be so easily dealt with. They tenaciously held the remainder of their front line and counter attacked with such vigour that they drove the Germans back and re-established their front line.

The Belgians took nearly 800 prisoners and 60 machine guns. Most of the Belgian casualties were from their 3rd Division who have a monument just outside Kippe. They however inflicted three times as many casualties on the assaulting Bavarians.

The northern pincer movement of von Ludendorff's Operation Tannenberg had failed. Within two weeks it would become apparent that this heroic stand by the Belgian Army had thwarted Ludendorff's aspirations in Flanders. By holding the line on their own they had released British Divisions which would prove vital in the next few weeks.

South of Ieper Mont Kemmel was held in a thin defensive line by the British 19th Division.

At 08:30 hours following two and a half hours of bombardment, the German infantry attacked the British lines but were bloodily beaten off and failed to break through.

That evening the French 28th Division took over responsibility for the Front Line at Kemmel and the hill itself. They also held the rear at the Scherpenberg, a smaller hill to the north west of Kemmel and where the British had undergone training in June 1917 for the great victory at Messines - now back in German hands after the briefest of struggles.

The situation was becoming increasingly difficult for the Allies and considerations about a strategic withdrawal were put forward. Such thoughts were rebuffed by General Foch who dispatched a further 3 French Divisions to bolster the British Line.

A quiet interlude

From the 19th to the 24th April the Germans appeared to have called a halt to their attack, and new worries began in the Allied camp that a new strike was being planned elsewhere - perhaps once again on the Somme ?

In fact the Germans were merely preparing their assault on Mont Kemmel.

By the morning of 25 April the French had taken over the entire line between Bailleul (Now in German hands) and Spanbroekmolen, where the Irish and Ulster Divisions had, side by side, stormed through the German lines less than a year before.

Viller Bretonneux

We have already discussed this battle in some detail, wherein it was denied that this might be the first time that a tank versus tank engagement was fought (of course without supporting evidence to back up the claim), so i will not go into too much detail again. However in the context of the narrative it was the next battle to be fought in the great german Spring Offensives on the Western Front.

The Germans attacked the French village of Villers-Bretonneux (Bret-on-er) , after first using poisonous gas and artillery. When night fell, the ANZACs stormed from their trenches and counter-attacked. The only order given was to "fight it out like Australians" (propoganda of course). A British General, who himself had won a Victoria Cross for bravery, called the ANZACs' attack that night as "perhaps the greatest individual feat of the war" (not propaganda, by that stage the abilities of the australians all along the front on both sides of the lines had become the stuff of legend) .

The ANZACs then had to enter the village and fight from house to house. Finally, Australian and French flags were raised over Villers-Bretonneux. The ANZACs stopped to bury their dead – 1200 Australians had been killed saving the village. It was not until they were putting the date on some makeshift crosses that they realised the date – it was ANZAC Day 1918, three years to the day since they had stormed ashore at Gallipoli.

The Australian flag is still flown at Villers-Bretonneux. It flies atop the Australian National Memorial, on which is listed the names of the 10,982 Australians killed in France who have no known grave. The French have called the main road through Villers-Bretonneux, Rue de Melbourne. The town has a restaurant called Restaurant le Kangarou, and the school, called Victoria College, was built from the donations of Victorian school children in the 1920s. Above every blackboard are the words....

"N'oublions jamais l'Australie" – never forget Australia.

It was one of the defining moments of the 1918 offensives

davebender said:

That's no mystery at all. The USA, Canada and Australia may have packed up and gone home after November 1918. For much of Europe plus Asia Minor WWI continued into the early 1920s.

Click to expand...

Many didn't pack up and go home - some troops were sent to the Russian Civil War...

Russian Civil War - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

might be where the extra casualties are coming from.